CULTIVATION.   The seeds are sown in nursery-beds in May and June for early, and July-August for mid-season cauliflower. The seeds of other cole crops are sown from the middle of September to the end of October. For the early crop, 600 to 750 g and for late crop 400 g seed, except for knol-khol where about 1 to 1.5 kg of seed is required, to be sown to cover one hectare. In the hills, the seeds are sown from March to June. The seedlings are transplanted when 5-6 weeks old at a spacing of 45 cm each way for the early crop. The row-to-row distance is increased to 60 cm for late varieties. In the case of knol-khol, it is reduced to 30 cm from row to row and 20 cm from plant to plant.

For best results, 15 to 20 tonnes of farmyard manure, compost or sludge should be incorporated into the soil about four weeks before transplanting. Sixty kg of nitrogen, 80 kg of phosphorus and 40 kg of potassium per hectare should be applied just before transplanting. A top-dressing of 60 kg of nitrogen, about six weeks after transplanting, at the time of earthing-up, is recommended. Water must be supplied to ensure continuous growth. An early crop may need irrigation twice a week till the start of the rains. The late crop may be irigated once a week, depending on the soil and the weather condition. Cauliflower is harvested when the curds attain a proper size and before they begin to 'rice' or discolour. Cabbage heads are harvested when they attain full size and become hard. Knol-khol knobs are harvested before they get fibrous. The average yield per hectare varies from 20 to 30 tonnes in the case of cauliflower, 30 to 40 tonnes in the case of cabbage and 20 to 25 tonnes in the case of knol-khol.

Boron deficiency causes browning or brown-rot of cauliflower. The application of 10-15 kg of Borax per hectare controls browning. Whiptail is caused by molybdenum deficiency, particularly in acid soils. Liming on acid soils or the application of 1 kg of ammonium molybdate per hectare is recommended. Damping-off of young seedlings in the nursery-bed can be prevented either by sterilizing the soil with formaldehyde or by drenching it with some fungicide. Proper drainage and aeration are necessary to prevent damping-off. Black-rot and soft-rot are caused by bacteria and can be prevented by using disease-free seeds, or with hot-water treatment of the seeds at 50^oC for 25-30 minutes or by using resistant varieties. Cabbage-maggot, looper and aphids are the main insect pests and can be controlled by spraying DDT (0.1%) or Malathion (0.02%).

Seeds of early and mid-season cauliflower can be raised in the plains. The seed yield may be about 500 to 600 kg per hectare. Seeds of other crops are produced in the hills between elevations of 1,300 and 1,600 metres. Late cauliflower yields 300 kg and cabbage and knol-khol about 500 kg of seed per hectare.

Root crops.   The important commercial crops grown under this group are radish (Raphanus sativus L.), turnip (Brassica rapa L.), carrot (Daucus carota L.) and beet (Beta vulgaris L.). Radish and turnip belong to the family Cruciferae, carrot to the Umbelliferae and beet to the Chenopodiaceae. The other vegetables belonging to this group are parsnip, rutabaga, salsify, charvil, skirret and celeriac. All these crops thrive well in the cool season. However, a number of varieties of radish, turnip and carrot grow well in a comparatively warm season.

VARIETIES.   Radish, turnip and carrot varieties are divided broadly into two groups - European or temperate and Asiatic or tropical. The commonest varieties are :
Radish :
Temperate--'White Icicle, 'Pusa Himani', 'Rapid Red', 'White Tipped', 'Scarlet Globe', 'French Breakfast', etc.
Tropical--'Japenese White', 'Pusa Desi', 'Pusa Chetaki', 'Jaunpuri', 'Bombay Red', etc.
Turnip :
Temperate--'Purple Top', 'White Globe', 'Golden Ball', 'Snow Ball', 'Pusa Chandrima'
Tropical--'Pusa Kanchan', 'Pusa Sweti'
Carrot :
Temperate--'Half-long Nantes', 'Coreless', 'Chantaney'
Tropical--'Pusa Kesar'
Beet : 'Crimson Globe', 'Detroit Dark Red'

CULTIVATION.   The temperate types are sown from the middle of September to February. The tropical types are generally sown from early August to the end of October. They bolt early, if sown later. The seed-rate per hectare is 3 to 4 kg for turnip, 5 to 6 kg for beet and carrot and 10 to 12 kg for radish. Light friable soil is considered best for root crops. The growth being rapid in a short period, fertile soil is preferred. All root crops need potassic fertilizers. To a normal soil, the application of 100 kg of nitrogen, 50 kg of phosphorus and 70 kg of potassium per hectare is recommended. All root crops require plenty of water till the roots are large enough to be pulled out. Long-rooted varieties need earthing-up at least once. Roots should be harvested when they are tender. A few days' delay in harvesting, particularly in the case of radish may make the roots pithy. The roots are pulled out along with the tops and then packed for marketing. The yield material vary from 20 to 30 tonnes per hectare.

The seeds of the temperate types are produced only in the hills. The tropical types produce seed in the plains. All the above vegetables are cross-pollinated crops. The roots left in situ produce the highest quantity of seed. However, to produce quality seed, the roots are pulled out, selected after examining their characters and then replanted.

The root crops are attacked by bacterial soft-rot, particularly in the hills. Sometimes there may be some cases of mosaic and rust. The most important insect pests are aphid and painted bug. These pests can be controlled by spraying Malathion or Folidol (0.02 to 0.03%).

Bulb crops.   The group of bulbs includes onion (Allium cepa L.), garlic (A. sativum L.), leek (A. porrum L.), shallot (A. ascalonicum L.), Welsh onion (A. fistulosum L.), and chive (A. schoenoprasum L.). All these crops belong to the family Liliaceae and genus Allium. The two most important crops commercially grown in India are onion and garlic.

VARIETIES.
Onion :
IARI-Pusa Red', 'Ratner' and 'Early Grano'
Others--'Patna Red', 'Patna White', 'Poona Red', 'Nasik Red', 'Nasik White', 'Bellary Red',etc.
Garlic : There is no recognized variety of garlic in India

CULTIVATION.   The seed of onion is sown in the nursey from the middle of October to the end of November. In the hills, the seed is sown from March to June. Eight to 10 kg of seed is sown in one hectare. The seedlings are transplanted 10 to 15 cm apart in December and early January. A crop transplanted early gives a higher yield, but the number of bolters material be high. Sometimes, small bulbs or bulbils are sown at about 1,000 to 1,200 kg per hectare for an early crop. About 20 tonnes of farmyard manure should be incorporated into the soil at the time of preparing the land. The application of 125 kg of nitrogen, 60 kg of phosphorus and 100 kg of potassium per hectare is recommended. Half the dose of nitrogen is to be top-dressed after about a month and the rest is to be applied at the time of transplanting. Weedicides, such as Tenoran at 2.5 kg per hectare in 800 liters of water, applied 3 weeks after transplanting, can control broad-leaved weeds. The crop should be irrigated so that the moisture content of the soil be kept at the optimum level. A dry spell, followed by irrigation, may cause the splitting of the outer scales. Irrigation is stopped when the tops mature and start falling. For high yields, the f₁ hybrid seed is used in most of the agriculturally advanced countries. For the economic production of hybrid seed male-sterile lines are used.

Garlic is propagated by sowing cloves, the quantity used being about 350-500 kg/ha. It is sown from September to November in the plains.

Onion gives a yield of 25 to 30 tonnes per hectare and garlic about 6 to 10 tonnes. Bulbs should be thoroughly cured before storage. The kharif crop does not store well.

Onion seed is commonly produced by sowing bulbs. Bulbs 2.3 to 3 cm in diameter, weighing 1,500 kg are needed to plant a hectare and may yield about 850 kg of seed. Bulbs are planted in the beginning of October. When seedlings are transplanted in early September, most of the bulbs produce flowering stalks and form seed.

The commonest disease of onion are downey mildew and purple blotch in the field, and black mould and bacterial rot in storage. The important insect pests are onion thrips and maggots.

Peas and Beans (legumes). Peas (Pisum sativum L.) and beans occupy a position of considerable importance because of their being good vegetable and pulse crops. They are highly nutritious and contain high percentages of proteins, carbohydrates and vitamins. They all belong to the family Leguminosae. There are at least 18 types of cultivated beans. From the standpoint of green vegetables French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), cowpea (Vigna sinensis Savi.), cluster-bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub) and sem (Dolichos lablab L.) are the most important.

VARIETIES.
Peas :
Early--'Asauji', 'Meteor', 'Early Badger', 'Arkel', 'Early December'
Mid-season and late--'Bonneville', 'New Line Perfection', 'Bridger', 'T 17', 'T 19', 'P 8', 'P 35', 'Marrowfat', 'Thomas Laxton', 'NP 29', etc. 'Early Giant', 'Lincoln' and 'Alderman' are recommended for the hills. 'Sylvia' is an edible podded variety
French bean : 'Contender', 'Giant Stringless', 'Pusa Parvati', 'Tendergreen', 'Kentucky Wonder' (pole type), etc.
Cowpea : 'Pusa Phalguni' (for summer), 'Pusa Barsati' (for rainy season) and 'Pusa Dofasli' (for both seasons)
Sem (Hyacinth bean) : 'Pusa Early Prolific'
Cluster bean : 'Pusa Mousmi', 'Pusa Sadabahar', 'Pusa Naubahar', etc.

CULTIVATION.   Peas are able to withstand relatively low temperature compared with beans. The plants, however, cannot withstand continued frost, especially during flowering and pod formation. Beans are resistant both to frost and very high temperatures. In the plains, peas are sown from the end of September to November. French bean is sown in August-September and February-March; cowpea and cluster-bean in February-march and June-July and sem in June-July. In the hills, they are sown from April to the end of May.

SEED-RATE.
Peas : early-100 to 120 kg per hectare; mid-season and late 80 to 90 kg/ha
French bean : Bush-85 to 95 kg; pole-25 to 30 kg/ha
Cowpea : 12 to 15 kg/ha

These crops being legumes, only phosphatic and potassium fertilizers are generally recommended. However, a small dose of nitrogen is valuable in stimulating early growth. Farmyard manure at 20 tonnes per hectare, if incorporated into the soil at the time of preparing the land, gives good result. Twenty-five kg of nitrogen, 70 kg of phosphorus and 50 kg of potassium per hectare should be added to the soil at the time of sowing. For proper germination, a pre-sowing irrigation (rauni) is desirable. These crops are sensitive to oversupply of water. One or two irrigation at the time of flowering and fruit-setting are beneficial. Seeds of legumes, if inoculated with legume bacteria, particularly on lands not previously grown under them, give good yields. Green pods are usually harvested at the proper stage of maturity, well-filled edible stage for peas and full-grown stage, with seeds still small, for French bean. Early varieties of peas give a yield of 3,000 to 4,000 kg and the mid-season and late varieties 6,000 to 7,000 kg per hectare. The yield of French bean varies from 4,000 to 5,000 kg for bush varieties and 7,000 to 8,000 per hectare. The yield for the pole varieties. Sem and cowpea give an average yield between 5,000 to 8,000 kg per hectare.

The important disease attacking peas and beans are Fusarium wilt, powdery mildew, rust, and pea and bean mosaic. For controlling Fusarium wilt, the best method is to use resistant varieties, and for controlling powdery mildew, dusting with sulpher is very effective. Disease-free seed should be used for controlling bean mosaic, as it is transmitted through seed. Aphids and weevils are the most important insect pests which can be controlled by spraying Malathion and DDT respectively.