GENERAL BOTANICAL ASPECTS. Piper nigrum L. belongs to the family Piperaceae. The family is dicotyledonous, but the stem has characteristic lines intermediate between those of the dicotyledons and the monocotyledons, i.e. the vascular bundles lie in two or more circles. The stem is usually swollen at the nodes. Numerous adventitious roots, known as clinging or climbing roots, are produced from the nodes. It is by means of these roots, the plants attach themselves to the standards and climb up by exposing the fresh leaves to maximum sunlight. The stem or the vines can be broadly classified into: (i) terminl stem, (ii) stolon or runners and (iii) lateral branches. The stem and branches bear alternate, shiny, dark green ovate leaves. Branches are produced from the dorsal buds. Each bud is accompanied by a single leaf lateral to the bud. The receme develops on the current year's flush opposite a leaf. Two successive primordials of a raceme are present within a single bud. Flowers are small, whitish and borne on hanging catkins or spikes.
CLIMATE AND SOIL. Pepper is a plants of the humid tropics. It grows best in well-drained clay-loam soils rich inhumus and flourishes in warm, moist climate. An annual rainfall of 250 cm is ideal for its cultivation. It can also be cultivated in areas receiving a slightly lower rate of rainfall, provided it is well distributed throughout the year. It can tolerate a temperature range of 10o to 40o c and grows well from the sea-level up to an altitude of 1,200 metres. Red, laterite virgin soils on the slope of the Western Ghats is also suitable for growing pepper. To prevent the scorching effect of the sun, the slope facing the south should be avoided.
PROPOGATION. Pepper is propagated best from cuttings of the runner shoots which originate from the base of the vines. The runner-shoots of selected high-yielding healthy vines are to be kept coiled in the forks of 2 or 3 sticks fixed in the ground so that the shoots do not come into contact with the soils and strike roots. Cuttings from lateral fruiting branches can also be used for planting. They are separated from the vine in February-March. The cuttings with 2 or 3 nodes are planted with atleast one node below the soils-level on suitable nursery-beds or in polythene bags or bamboo baskets filled with soils and kept under partial shade. They form roots and become ready for planting in June-July. Pepper cuttings can also be planted directly in the field. For this purpose, 4 or 5 pepper cuttings each with 2 or 3 nodes, are planted 30 cm away from the standard with the onset of the south westerly monsoon. Propagation from seed is also possible, but it is not generally practised.
PLANTING. Pepper is generally planted with the onset of the south westerly monsoon. Pits of 0.5 m cube are made 3 or 4 metres apart in each direction. With the first showers in May-June, the cuttings of 'Murukku' (Erythrina indica) are planted in these pits as standards. Garuga, pinnata, Spondias mangifera and silver oak (Grevillea robusta) are the other common standards used. Rooted cuttings of pepper are then planted in June-July at the rate of 2 or 3 per standard , about 30 cm away from the base. In doing so, as far as possible the southern side of the standard should be avoided for planting. The soils around the roots should be pressed hard to avoid water stagnation. Too much shade during flowering and fruiting affects the yield adversely. The pruning of excessive foliage of the standards is therefore done during March-April. Sometimes, pepper is grown in association with mango, jack and other trees. Pepper is also cultivated as a subsidiary crop in coffee and coconut plantations, and the coconut, the arecanut and other trees elsewhere serve as standards in these situations.
As pepper is grown mainly as a rainfed , cultural operations assume greater importance. Digging is usually done around the standards and vines upto a diameterof about 2 m or in the entire plantations. Two diggings are generally given during August-September and October-November. The vines are also earthed up at this time. On the hill slopes, adequate soil-conservation measures, such as contour-bunding or terracing, or the growing of a cover crop. Each vine maybe manured with about 9 kg of well-rotted cattle manure or compost as a basal dose and 100 g of N2 160 g of P2O5 and 60 g of K2O anually in two split doses, when they aare 3 to 4 years old. In the earlier years,graded doses of the above combinations maybe applied. The manure should be applied to the soils around the vine at a distance of 30 cm and upto a depth of about 15 cm and incorporated with the soils with drake or fork. One-half to one kg lime applied in alternate years during April-May is also beneficial.
In Indonesia, Malaysia and Brazil, pepper vines are trained or hardwood supports. In certain areas, it is a common practise to detach the vines from the standard when they are about 2 m high coiled around and buried in a circular pit at the base of the standard, leaving the 30 cm above the soils. This treatment is said to encourage the formation of new shoots and roots. The vines are also sometimes pruned to promote lateral growth. In countries where hardwood or dead supports are used, vines are generally pruned back 7 to 8 times to encourage the productive lateral shoots and to keep the plants short for easy harvesting.
VARIETIES. There are many varieties of cultivated pepper. They differ mainly in the time taken to mature, the length of the spike and the size of the berries. Each tract has its own selection of the popular varieties, known by different vernacular names, such as 'Balankotta', 'Kalluvalli', 'Perumkodi', 'Cheriakodi', 'Uthirankotta', 'Cheria Kaniakadan', 'Valia Kaniakadan', 'Perumkodi', 'Chola', 'Morata', 'Arasinamorata', 'Doddiga' and 'Tattisara', in Kerala and Karnataka. A new hybrid variety called 'Panniyur-I' has been evolved at the Pepper Research Station, Panniyur, Kerala. 'Cheriakaniakadan', a popular southern Kerala variety and 'Uthirankota', a northern Kerala variety, and the male and female parents of this hybrid. This is a high yielder, giving 3 to 4 times more yield than the local varieties, and is also an early bearer. This variety has been found to been suitable for growing under different agro-climatic conditions in the pepper-growing tracts. The various kinds of pepper known to the spices trade are named after the districts in which they are produced or the neighbouring ports through which they are exported from Alleppey (Alapuzha) and Tellicherry are generally known as 'Malabar Alleppey' and 'Malabar Tellicherry' respectively.
HARVESTING AND CURING. The pepper vines commence bearing during the third year. Flowering starts during May-June and the light showers during this period are considered to be beneficial for the fruit-set. It takes nearly 6 to 8 months from flowering to harvesting. The season for harvesting mature berries is November-February in the plains and January-March in the hills. Harvesting is generally done by plucking the spikes, when one or two berries become bright orange or red. The spikes are spread on the floor or on the mats and the berries are seperated by trampling and they are dried in the sun for 4 to 7 days until the outer skins become black and shrink. This is the black pepper of commercial use.
White pepper is prepared from fully ripened berries by removing the outer rind and the pulp before drying. The recovery of the white pepper is 25 per cent of the ripe berries whereas that of black pepper is 33 per cent.
YIELD. Although the vines start bearing from the third year onwards, the yield gets stabilized only from the seventh or eighth year after planting. One hectare of the crop yields about 600-800 kg of black pepper. The yield declines about 25 years of planting. Under favourable conditions, the vines may live upto 40-60 years.
CHILLIES. Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.; Capsicum frutescensL.), also called 'red pepper', is an important cash crop in India and is grown for its pungent fruits, which are used both green and ripe (the latter in the dried form) to impart pungency to the food. As a condiment, it has become indispensible in every in every Indian home. It is also used medicinally, and in chutnies and pickles. The pungency is due to the active principle 'capsicin' contained in the skin and the septa of the fruit. Introduced from tropical South America in the seventeenth century, it is now grown in all parts of India covering about 7,33,800 hectares. Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu account for about 75 per cent of the total area and annual production.
GENERAL BOTANICAL ASPECTS. Capsicum palnts are herbaceous or semi-woody annualsor perennials. The leaves are ovate, tapering to a sharp point, entire up to 15 cm long, dark green on the upper surface and pale green on the lower surface. The flowers are small, white and borne singly or in clusters of 2 or 3 in the axils of the leaves. The fruits are of diverse shapes and sizes depending upon the variety.
CLIMATE AND SOIL. The crop is grown from almost the sea-level up to an altitude of 1500 metres in tropical and subtropical regions with an annual rainfall of 60-150 cm. Very high rainfall during its growth is harmful. When grown in the hot-weather or in lower rainfall tracts, it is cultivated as an irrigated crop. The rain-fed crop does well on deep-fertile, well-drained black cotton soils. In ill-drained soils the plants shed their leaves and turn sickly even in temporary water-logging. Under irrigation and good manuring excellent crops can be raised in sandy and light alluvial loams as well as in red loamy soils.
ROTATION. Under rain-fed conditions, the crops is rotated with jowar, ragi, cotton, groundnut and castor. As an irrigated crop, it is grown in rotation with sugarcane, turmeric, ragi, maize or with any of the vegetables. Since the pests and diseases are common to chilli, brinjal and potato it is not advisable to include them in a rotation. The irrigated chilli crop is sometimes grown mixed with millets, groundnut, cotton , ginger or vegetables. As a garden crop in northern India, it is sometimes allowed to grow as a stand-over crop for one or two seasons.
CULTIVATION. The land is ploughed and harrowed 3 or 4 times to obtain a fine tilth. About 100 cartloads of farmyard manure or compost per hectare is applied at the last ploughing. Some farmers also do sheep-penning and pen about 5000 sheep per hectare, in addition to the application of manures. In Andhra Pradesh the crop receives a basal dressing of 10-12 tonnes of farmyard manure or compost. Green manuring is recommended for the areas of assured rainfall and also for the irrigated crop. In addition, 60 kg of N, 30 kg of P2O5 and 50 kg of K2O per ha for tyhe rainfed crop and 60 kg of N, 60 kg of P2O5 and 50 kg of K2O per ha for the irrigated crop are applied as a basal dressing. The land for irrigated chilli is laid out in beds, 2-3 square metres, or is made into ridges 1/2 to 1 metre apart. The winter crop is planted from July to September and the summer and the summer crop in February and March. Whereas these are the two important seasons for its cultivation, a third-crop, known as the mid-season (May-June) crop, is also taken in certain parts of the country.
The chilli is generally transplanted, though direct sowing is also done in certain parts of the country, especially in Andhra Pradesh. Seeds taken from healthy, well-matured fruits selected for the purpose are mixed with ashes and sown evenly in well-manured nursery-beds. beds are generally 1.2m wide and 15 cm high with channels, with channels between the beds to facilitate the drainage of excess water. About 1100-1200g of seeds are sown in 0.01 ha will give sufficient seedlings to transplant in one hectare. The treatment of seed with Ceresan or Agrosan GN, as a plant-protection against seed-borne diseases, is desirable. The seed is protected from the sun with a thin mulch of straw or leaves. The mulch is removed on the completion of germination in about 7-10 days. The seedlings are irrigated every day and manured either with ammonium sulphate or with some oilcake. Spraying the crop with 1% Bordeaux mixture or someother copper fungicide during the third week after sowing is desirable to prevent damping-off. The seedlings are thinned, if necessary and those growing too tall are sometimes topped. The seedlings are ready for transplanting in 40-45 days. They are generally transplanted on a cloudy evening preceding rain, or when it is actually drizzling. A shower at or after transplanting helps the seedlings to take a quick foothold; in the absense of it, a light watering is given. Seedlings are planted 45-60 cm apart in straight rows 1/2 to 1 m apart. In Karnataka furrows, 60 cm apart, are opened with a country-plough along as well as across the field and two good seedlings are planted along the water-line on one side of the ridges made 25-45 cm apart. Similarly, in beds a spacing of 45-60 cm is adopted. The irrigated crop is weeded and hand hoed 3 or 4 times. Irrigation is given at 7-10 day intervals, depending on the season and the crop growth. The rain-fed crop is given 2 or 3 hoeings with bullock-drawn implements and sometimes earthed up to help the surplus rain water to flow freely. The crop responds well to good cultivation , irrigation and manuring. The rain-fed crop is top-dressed with 20 kg of N per ha to be drilled in between the rows on the 45th day after planting, preferably a good shower. For the irrigated crop, 100-140 kg of N in 4-6 split doses, followed by a copious irrigation at fortnightly intervals , starting from the 45th day of planting is recommended to be top dressed.
VARIETIES. The varieties under cultivation differ in the size, shape, colour and pungency of the fruits. The fruits may be thin and long, large and thick, short and bell-shaped, small and round. The unripe fruits may be green, creamy and yellow or orange. Similarly the ripe fruits may be of different shades of red. The variety of bell-shaped fruits is the least pungent and is cooked as an ordinary vegetable. Capsicum annuum and C. Frutescens are the two principal species grown in the varieties of the former constitute the chief of the dry chilli or commercial use.
Crop improvement research at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, has produced 'NP 41', a high-yielding pungent chilli and 'NP 46', another chilli resistant to thrips. 'Hybrid 5-1-5'is high yielding and suitable for the production of green chillies. Among the non-pungent vegetable types, two American varieties, 'World Beater' and 'Bell Pepper', and one Russian variety, 'R. 449' are high-yielders. In Andhra Pradesh, the improved varieties, 'G-1','G-2','G-3','G-4' and 'G-5' and four cultures, 'X-200', 'Ca.960', 'X-196' and 'X-197' are high-yielding and are fast spreading in the state. The variety 'G-1' is high-yielding and tolerant to thrips, has a persistent calyx and is highly suited for export. 'G-3' responds well to higher doses of fertilizers. 'G-4' is a strain suitable for producing green chillies. It has a mild pungency and low seed content. It is more productive and more tolerant to pests and diseases than 'G-3'. 'G-5' is a short-pod variety.
HARVESTING.The crop becomes ready for harvesting in about 31/2 months after planting . The picking of ripe fruit continues for about 2 months and about 6-10 pickings are taken for this purpose. The summer crop is wholly disposed of as green chillies. Ripe fruits are picked along with stalks and are heaped indoors for 3 or 4 days for the partially ripe fruit to develop the proper red colour. They are then dried in the sun for 4-5 days depending upon weather conditions and are graded for size and colour before marketing. Unripe chillies are sometimes oiled and dried for domestic consumption. Commercially, there are various grades such as the first sort, mixture etc. Grades, such as special medium and fair are also adopted. Good fruit length, shining red colour, high pungency and strong attachment of the calyx are the important factors which the merchants consider for fetching a high price.
In the USA and other countries, there is a liking for stalkless chilli pods of deeep red and glossy pericarp. Artificial drying favours the retention of the deep red colour and smooth and glossy pericarp, as the produce is dehydrated within a short period of 18 hours. Pods of 'G-3', which have a cup shaped calyx and compressed base are reported to withstand the removal of the calyx. The seeds can be retained intact since the thalamus portion, which is compressed prevents shedding.
YIELD. The average yield of the rainfed crop is about 500 kg of dry chillies per ha and that of irrigated crop varies from 1000-2000 kg per ha. The recovery od dry chillies is 25-30 per cent of the fresh weight.
